Who owns the Air Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Who owns the Air - Essay Example Theoretically, business can use the most effective technologies trying to get more profits from the exploitation of the resources. The growing concern about the air pollution may change the approach to pollution prevention from end of pipe approach to the reducing of the pollution at its source. However, so-called â€Å"green capitalism† is still oriented on the getting profit from the situation. Besides, private enterprise cannot be responsible for any trans-boundary effects or the externalities (German and Keeler, 2010). In case of the air pollution, private entrepreneur cannot be responsible for the pollutants that are transmitted from the other regions. It is hard to determine to what extent each company is responsible for the content of the pollutant in the certain region. Local (or regional) authorities could manage common pool resources (including air) through the effective self-governing institutions. The representatives of the community are aimed on the preservation of the resources and on the care about health within the location. Self-governing institutions may establish the rules (or the limitations) that exclude the undesirable agents. However, the community cannot predict rapidly changing circumstances and may not know how to deal with new actors. It is also hard to apply sanctions â€Å"from within† (German and Keeler, 2010). Apart from the reaction on the changing circumstances, local authorities are also not protected from the trans-boundary effects. The state is not always the best agent in the sphere of pollution prevention. On the one hand, the state establish the legislation and tradable environmental allowances for the whole territory of the country. It possesses enough resources to organize control the pollution. State programs of pollution prevention take into account the interests of local authorities and private enterprises. On the

Business Ethics Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 12500 words

Business Ethics - Coursework Example 1.2.4 Importance of business ethics and morality in the working environment 12 1.3 Problem of Statement 14 1.4 Purpose of the study 14 1.5 Significance of the study 15 1.6 Scope and limitations 15 1.7 Definition of terms 15 1.8 Summary 17 Chapter two 18 Literature review 18 2.1 introduction 18 2.2 history of the research 18 2.3 Review of business Ethics 19 2.4 Business ethics and profitability 24 2.5 Summary 26 Chapter three 27 Research methodology 27 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Research methods applied 27 3.2.1 Quantitative research methodology 27 3.2.2 Qualitative research methodology 28 3.2.3 Justification for using the quantitative and qualitative research methodology 28 3.3 Techniques of data collection 28 3.3.1 Primary data collection protocols 29 3.3.3 Selected data collection protocols 30 3.4 Theoretical Framework 30 3.4.1 Variables used in the study 30 3.4.2 Rationale for selecting and using the variables selected 32 3.5 Research subjects 32 3.5.1 Research data parameters 32 3.6 Designing the questionnaire 34 3.6.1 Description of the questionnaire used 34 3.6.2 Categories of the question used 35 3.6.3 Sources of information 36 3.7 Conducting interviews 36 The Research Questionnaire 36 The interview questions 40 Questions to the employees 40 Question to the management 41 3.8.1 Collecting information from previous works 42 3.8.2 Company reports 42 3.8.3 Study of governmental guideline and policies 42 3.9 Summary 42 Chapter four 43 Results and Discussions 43 4.1 Results from the questionnaire 43 4.1.1 Size of the firm 43 4.1.2 Management levels/organizational structure 44 Figure 4.1: hierarchical organization structure 44 Figure 4.2: hierarchical organization structure 45 4.1.3 Code of ethics 46 4.1.4 Updating of...Previous study shows that morality and business ethics is not only an important and compulsory part of business success, but also a methods of fostering cooperation and honesty among its workforce as well as encouraging candor towards the societal and philosophical issues about the business responsibility in contributing to the community welfare and Environmental preservation. The researcher in this paper studies the morality of business ethics in a profitable organization. The researcher investigative edge is to determine the effects of morality to the triumph of any organization, determine any incentives given to augment morality in the business environ as well as examine whether ethical issues are mandatory and obligatory for the success and operation of any corporation. Qualitative and quantitative research methods are applied to carefully study the business milieu with the view of drawing a conclusive result on the issue. The researcher also formulated questionnaires and relied on first hand information to investigate the complex aspect of morality in business from a multidimensional view. The term business ethics can be defined as accepted or prescribed code of conduct in the business atmosphere. Ethical principles govern the operations of the business environment and incorporate all aspects of the industry conduct, conduct of individuals and organizations as a whole.

Describe and evaluate theories of aggression

Describe and evaluate theories of aggression There are many forms of aggression used in society today, from name calling in the playground to domestic violence, a man or women being beaten by his or her spouse. There are several on-going debates regarding aggression development, one of the main debates is nature versus nurture with Konrad Lorenz supporting the nature theory by suggesting that aggression is an instinct that we are all born with and Albert Bandura supporting the nurture theory, believing that a child is influenced by their surroundings and by their upbringing. This leads to the question could aggression be genetically transferred to us like the colour of our hair or eyes or does it develop as we grow and mature and interact with the world around us. Frustration and anger are common precursors to aggression but anger doesnt always turn into aggression; frustration arising from inability to control a situation leads to anger which may or may not escalate to full blown aggression. Anger can lead to irritation; when we get ready in the morning to go to work and the car does not start we may feel frustrated and sense the anger warming up our face, however, it may not escalate to aggression because the object did not choose to act that way. In other words, we feel angry or aggressive when we know that the source of frustration could have chosen to behave in a better or more desirable manner. A study by Averill and Weiner showed that anger arises when someone who frustrates us could have chosen to act otherwise. (Myers 2005, p.387) The evolutionary explanation of human aggression suggests that aggression serves as an important function in terms of the individuals survival as well as its potential to procreate. Newman et al discovered genes that are linked to aggression in Macaque monkeys and this gene has been present in them for at least 25 million years and so for that gene to have survived it must have provided some advantages. One explanation for aggression in people is that humans are somehow programmed to be aggressive and violent and that it part of a persons basic nature. Another view suggests that aggression is an inherited fighting instinct that we share with other species. In the past males had to act aggressively to get rid of competition and get the mate they desire. They eliminated their competition either by driving them away or by killing them. Aggression can thus be seen to serve adaptive purposes. Because the males who were fittest survived and got the most access to females it may have lead to the aggressive gene to be passed on and so creates a more aggressive generation which is stronger and fitter than the last. Spriggs (1999) argued that our hunter-gatherer ancestors would have formed a social structure based on stamina, physical strength and stature. So our ancestors survived on their abilities and an adaptive aggressive tendency. Males might also have become the aggressors was in order to win favour of the females and then pass on his genes. Since evolutionary success was built on the foundation of the aggressive male and responsive female, evolution continues to favour the social groups dominated by natural selection. There is however various factors that help prove the theory that genetics is a large component in aggression. Some hunters in groups were better than other; some groups produced more males, males that were better at gathering sources, which is why in some cultures it is seen more desirable to have males. Those men who have the combined traits of strength, stamina and cunning begin to outperform and bring back more than the others. As a result their stature grew and so did their chances of reproduction. The disadvantage with this theory is that the evidence given is based on thousands of years ago when humanity first began, so it is difficult to empirically test. Some scientists argue that this theory is defenseless and has no real evidence. Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud agreed with the nature theory to aggression development, he believed in the instinct theory. He stated that everyone is born with an instinct to live, Eros, and an instinct to die, Thanatos, and that as our aggression builds up and builds up, we can turn our death instinct towards others in a movement of self preservation to stop us from destroying ourselves. This process is known as the hydraulic theory; Freud suggested that the only way around this was to find another way to vent our aggression build up possibly through some form of therapeutic release such as sport. Lorenz studied animals as he believed, like Darwin, that we evolved from animals and he found that we have inherited a fighting instinct from them. He supports the nature theory but his beliefs differ from Freuds as he finds aggression a beneficial instinct that doesnt come from an internal struggle between our life and death instincts but from an instinct to protect territory, part ners and young from rivals of the same species. Megargee and Mendelsohn agreed with Freuds theories and completed a study on people who had committed brutally aggressive crimes, they found that their aggression had been repressed for so long until it built up so much that something trivial caused an aggressive outburst, and, as Freuds theory predicts, after the outburst the attacker returned to a normal calm state with no signs of an aggressive nature. There are a lot of problems with the instinct theory one being that it is difficult to test and another being that not everyone displays the same levels of aggression in the same circumstances which suggests biological factors alone cannot be responsible. Also there are some societies that show almost no acts of aggression at all such as the Amish located in both America and Canada and the Nubians situated in Egypt. There is also the view that aggression is something we learn or imitate from people around us this is known as the social learning theory. The Social Learning theory proposes that the cause of all aggressive behaviour is due to interactions with others in our social world. According to social learning theorists such as Bandura, aggressive behaviour is learned in either one of 2 ways, by direct experience which is based on operant conditioning or by vicarious (indirect) experience which is based on observational learning. Operant conditioning is for example, when a child pushes another child and, as a result, gets something they want; the action is then reinforced and is likely to occur in similar situations in the future. However observational learning is when a child sees a role model behaving in a particular way and imitates the behaviour of the model. It is thought that most aggression is learnt by observational learning, usually from those who are of a big significance to us. From these models we learn about the nature of aggressive behaviour and to which situations this behaviour is appropriate and also its likely consequences. According to behaviourists, behaviour that is reinforced (rewarded) will be repeated and learned and aggression that is associated with a reward (e.g. Praise) is likely to be learned. However there are various factors that can determine whether a person will be aggressive in a certain situation, one of these is whether a persons previous experiences of aggression (either their own or aggression of another person) were good or bad experiences. Another factor is whether these previous experiences were successful or not, this then allows them to assess how likely their aggressive behaviour will get them rewarded or punished in this certain situation. Finally, the cognitive, social and environmental factors that are operating at the same time, for example a person isnt likely to act aggressive if they fear that the victim may retaliate. On the other hand, aggression is likely to increase if person is in a hostile situation. Bandura combines the logic of both social psychology and cognitive psychology in his social cognitive perspective of human behaviour. Bandura thought that behaviour may be motivated not only by inherent psychological factors but also by more socio-environmental factors. He argued that the individual and the social environment were linked, something he called reciprocal determinism. Bandura social learning theory had four basic processes which are Attention, Retention, Reproduction and Motivation (Reinforcements). Attention only occurs if a person attends to the models behaviour. Retention happens as we code and remember the behaviour by placing it into long-term memory. Reproduction happens if an individual is capable of reproducing the models behaviour. If an individual expects to receive positive reinforcements this will then motivate an individuals behaviour, which is the motivation process. The Social Learning theorys view on aggression is supported by various experiments. Banduras most well-known study is the Bobo Doll Study whch involved child male and female participants from 3 to 5 years old with half the participants exposed to aggressive models interacting with a life-sized inflatable Bobo doll whilst the other half were exposed to models with no aggression. Children in the aggressive condition reproduced most of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviour whereas children in the non aggressive showed virtually no aggression. The findings support the Social Learning theory as the aggressive behaviour displayed came diectly from watching an aggressive model. Bandura also carried out variations of his study, one showing the model being rewarded or punished in a variety of ways, the kids were rewarded for their imitations, and the model was changed to be less attractive or less prestigious, and so on. Â   Responding to criticism that Bobo dolls were supposed to be hit, he even did a film of the young woman beating up a live clown. Â   When the children went into the other room, what should they find there but the live clown! Â   They proceeded to punch him, kick him, hit him with little hammers, and so on. The variations support the Social Learning Theory even more because of its 4 processes with the last being motivation/reinforcements. One variation showed that from 3 different groups the group that had seen the model being rewarded for aggressive behaviour showed high levels of aggression, however those who seen the model punished performed a lower level of aggression and the ones that saw the model neither punished nor rewarded fell between the other two levels. This supports Social Learning Theorys about reinforcements. However, the studies lack ecological validity because they were carried out in Laboratory conditions which means the results may not be able to be applied to real world situations. On the other hand Social Learning Theory can explain inconsistencies in aggressive behaviour. For example, if someone is aggressive and overpowering at home, yet meek and passive at work then it means they have learned to behave differently in the two situations as aggression brings reward in one place but not the other. Therefore the theory makes logical sense that we have learned this. SLT can also explain cultural differences in aggressive behaviour. The culture of violence theory proposes that some cultures emphasize and model aggressive behaviour whilst others do the opposite and so are more likely to produce individuals with low levels of aggression. This means that there isnt cultural bias in the studies as they have studied various different cultures and explained the differences between them. Also, the studies have lead to other developments in the real world so have importance in the fact the studies have practical applications. The studies have lead to changes such as focus on the effects of the visual media on both children and Adults. It has also led to implications on other different places such as classroom use. This is because now they can see certain reinforcements could be put into use, for example rewarded for answering a very hard question in class or being punished for maybe hitting another pupil in the class. It is effective for increasing appropriate behaviour and also good for decreasing inappropriate behaviours. However, although the theory has many strong points it also has its weaknesses such as the fact that the Social Learning Theory is also reductionist in the sense that is ignores biological factors. Biological theorists argue that Social Learning Theory ignores biological factors completely. It doesnt look at brain structures or possible learning difficulties and therefore the results collected could lack validity. It also means that SLT takes the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate. Finally, one of the main issues with the Social Learning Theorys research studies; in particular Bandura is the fact that it seen as very unethical and also morally wrong to encourage the children to be aggressive. David Skuse from the Institute of Child Health also conducted his own study on 224 former male child abuse victims he disagrees with Zeanah and Zeanah and found that only 12% of these abused children went on in later life to copy or imitate this abuse. Myers (2005 p. 386), explains, Displacement is the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target. It is difficult to understand why people intentionally cause harm to others; however, it is even more complex to comprehend why an innocent third person would be targeted to express frustration. Several theories have emerged on the subject and they give us better insight into the psychology of displaced aggression. Conventional psychology suggested that displaced aggression was closely connected with low-self esteem. However since the breakthrough study by Baumeister (1996), conventional wisdom has given way to a startling revelation, i.e. people with high ego are more likely to engage in aggressive behaviour than people with lower self esteem. Baumeister and Bushman (1998) studied aggression in more detail and in greater depth than many other researchers. They were the first to suggest that low self-esteem may have not any link to aggression rather it is inflated ego that appears to lead to aggression. In their study they tested young adults for narcissism and found that those who scored higher on narcissist scale would react with significantly more aggression than those who scored low on this scale. Self-love, as they had put it, was thus found to be closely linked to aggression. It would be important to understand here that self-esteem is not the same thing as ego. Some very egoistical people may not have high self-esteem. Even though these terms have been used interchangeably, it is wrong to assume that they are the same. The reason Baumeister and Bushman (1998) used them this way is because a person with low self-esteem doesnt really love himself and self-love was the main subject of this research. Temperature can play an important role with aggression, (Baron/ Bell) did research involving the effects of heat on aggression by seeing how willing a participant would be to give electric shocks to another,they found that temperatures within the range of 92-95F generally increased the level of aggression. However when the temperatures became too extreme they found the lvels of aggression decreased, in these conditions the participants were stressed and did not want to handle the persons angry reactions, because they didnt want the hassle of the added stress. Baron and Bells study showed a curvilinear effect (where the relationship between heat and aggression both increase together but as it gets to a certain point the aggression decreases) between temperature and aggression which was predicted by the NAE theory saying that when temperature becomes very high an individual seeks to escape lowering aggression, but at lower temperatures the negative affect leads to aggression. There have been many scientists that feel that outside factors are the cause of aggression, Berkowitz studied the effects of coldness on aggressive tendencies and found that students that held their hands in very cold water showed an increase in the likeliness of aggression towards fellow students. Whereas Carlsmith and Anderson studied 79 cities between 1967 and 1971 and they found that aggression was more likely to occur when it was particularly hot days. With so many studies showing different triggers and responses to aggression it is unlikely that we will ever find a definite cause. It could be a combination of all theories or just depend on the subject concerned however as long as there is aggression and violence in society it will continue to be researched and studied. Bibliography Davenport G.C (1994) An Introduction to Child Development Collins Educational London Gross R. And McIlveen R. (1998) Psychology A New Introduction Greengate Publishing Services Kent www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1093439 Accessed 21/03/09 www.beyondintractability.org/essay/aggression Accessed 21/03/09 www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic/Aggression.topicArticleId-25438,articleId-25408.html Date accessed 21/03/09 www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/bandura.htm Date accessed 21/03/09 http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/1809 Date accessed 21/03/09 http://209.85.229.132/search?q=cache:xd_v53tfKawJ:learn.hackney.ac.uk/file.php/32/Psychology_-_Dean/Social_Psychology/Handout_06_-_Theories_of_Aggression.doc+theories+of+aggressioncd=12hl=enct=clnkgl=uk Date accessed 21/03/09 Displaced aggression is an abnormal behavior even if found commonly in some people. It is continued as an easier form of aggression release if the aggressor has been successful the first time. If the aggression directed to the innocent target results in a positive outcome for the aggressor, the aggression is rewarded. The individual will recur to the same method of release of frustration the next time he faces similar situation if he feels that there are not consequences connected to the harm-doing. When punishment to this behavior is applied, it can teach the aggressor self-control. Displaced Aggression in children and young adults Unfortunately, when a parent has no control over the emotions caused by frustration and had tasted the reward of aggression, he/she is more likely to continue displacing the aggression toward his family; therefore, his children will learn aggression as a normal behavior. Displacement effects are, certainly, attached to ethnic and racial conflicts as well as many other social behaviors. Discrimination and prejudice are forms of aggression displacement. Motivation to restore equity may also produce displacement-like behavior. Displacement of aggression can also be observed in children at schools when they decide to transfer the frustration caused by a teachers negative attitude against them, toward others students. They cannot attack physically or verbally the teacher so displacement of the aggression is redirected to a target other than the source of frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target. (Myers, 2005, p. 386). In this case, the targets are those kids to whom the teacher pays more attention. The teacher represents the authority, problem-solver person in charge and, in many cases, the children cannot approach them to talk about their feelings and even the needs they have about a subject. Then, the frustration turns into anger and without self control, in aggressive behavior. The student will feel rewarded by the displacement aggressive act even if the release of frustration is temporary. Displaced Aggression and Self-esteem Choice of Target It has also been found that aggressors choice of the innocent target is dependent on some important factors such as similarity of the target to the actual source or similarity of the situation in which the target was found. In other words, a person who behaves violently towards his wife when she asks him why he never mowed the lawn chose his wife as the target because her request bore some resemblance to the aggressive requests made by his boss. Miller (1948) suggested that choice of target is not a random act. It is based on three factors: a. the strength of the instigation to aggression b. the strength of inhibitions against such behavior c. The stimulus similarity of each potential victim to the frustrating agent. (Baron, 1977,p.24) The third factor explains that a target is chosen because it resembled the frustrating agent. The person may have used the same tone, asked for something similar, or made a demand in similar manner. It can be anything but as long as in the aggressors mind, it resembled the source, this target would be chosen. But this is not the only factor. It has also been found that the resembling target must also exhibit certain weakness. He/she must appear weaker than the original source and also weaker than the aggressor himself. A strong target no matter how much it resembles the source is most often not selected because the aggressor cannot hope to be successful against him. Triggers and Displaced Aggression In this regard, triggered displaced aggression studies have offered some interesting insights. Triggered displaced aggression suggests that strength of the trigger is closely connected with level of displaced aggression. Mild triggers were most often responded to with very high levels of displaced aggression compared to moderate or strong trigger. Vasquez et al. (2004) used triggers to examine the situations in which a person may choose to display displaced aggression. He found that mild triggers were more likely to result in serious displaced aggression compared to moderate or strong triggers. For example, episodes of road rage or spousal abuse are frequently elicited by minor events. Thus, in many of these episodes, a prior provocation or frustration may have contributed to the aggression observed in response to a minor impoliteness on the highway or a wifes reminder about the uncut lawn. Moreover, aggressive individuals may not even be explicitly aware that their response to the person who provided the minor triggering event may be inordinately disproportionate. Although the process details presented here are incomplete, future research conducted within the TDA paradigm may eventually lead to a complete understanding of situational and individual moderators of aggressive responding among previously provoked participants in response to a mild triggering provocation. It is hoped that through understanding these moderators and process variables, efforts to limit aggressive responding may be developed. Vasquez (2004) and others who have studied triggered displaced aggression used terms that might confuse a person regarding the connection between strength of triggers and displaced aggression. In simple terms, the reason a mild trigger elicits highest level of displaced aggression is because of the inherent weakness of the trigger. The target chose to use a mild trigger because he/she apparently lacked the strength to make a stronger provocation. The aggressor takes it as a sign of weakness that gives him the confidence to lash out and choose the person as a target. Conclusion We have often come across cases of displaced aggression. We may have also been guilty of engaging in it ourselves too without realizing that our aggression was displaced. Displaced aggression is not only found in adults but is also exhibited by children. It is a common not highly undesirable way to react to a provocative situation. The behavior is considered abnormal and is closely linked to inflated ego instead of self esteem. Children can learn displaced aggression as a normal way of reacting to frustration because that is how their parents behaved. Aggressors choose their targets based on some important characteristics. Most importantly this target should resemble the actual source in some manner and must also exhibit certain degree of weakness. It is important to understand that our research revealed no direct link between self esteem but was linked to narcissist behavior. A person who loves himself in an abnormal manner fails to take insults in its proper perspective and decides that he would react strongly even if the actual source remains unmoved. This is when an innocent third person is chosen. Displaced aggression can be treated through carefully administered punishment that sends a message that this kind of behavior is undesired and must be discontinued.

if bud abbot was alive today :: essays research papers

If Bud Abbott and Lou Costello were alive today, their infamous sketch, "Who's on first?" might have turned out something like this: COSTELLO CALLS TO BUY A COMPUTER FROM ABBOTT ABBOTT: Super Duper computer store. Can I help you? COSTELLO: Thanks. I'm setting up an office in my den and I'm thinking about buying a computer. ABBOTT: Mac? COSTELLO: No, the name's Lou. ABBOTT: Your computer? COSTELLO: I don't own a computer. I want to buy one. ABBOTT: Mac? COSTELLO: I told you, my name's Lou. ABBOTT: What about Windows? COSTELLO: Why? Will it get stuffy in here? ABBOTT: Do you want a computer with Windows? COSTELLO: I don't know. What will I see when I look at the windows? ABBOTT: Wallpaper. COSTELLO: Never mind the windows. I need a computer and software. ABBOTT: Software for Windows? COSTELLO: No. On the computer! I need something I can use to write proposals, track expenses and run my business. What do you have? ABBOTT: Office. COSTELLO: Yeah, for my office. Can you recommend anything? ABBOTT: I just did. COSTELLO: You just did what? ABBOTT: Recommend something. COSTELLO: You recommended something? ABBOTT: Yes. COSTELLO: For my office? ABBOTT: Yes. COSTELLO: OK, what did you recommend for my office? ABBOTT: Office. COSTELLO: Yes, for my office! ABBOTT: I recommend Office with Windows. COSTELLO: I already have an office with windows! OK, let's just say I'm sitting at my computer and I want to type a proposal. What do I need? ABBOTT: Word. COSTELLO: What word? ABBOTT: Word in Office. COSTELLO: The only word in office is office. ABBOTT: The Word in Office for Windows. COSTELLO: Which word in office for windows? ABBOTT: The Word you get when you click the blue "W". COSTELLO: I'm going to click your blue "w" if you don't start with some straight answers. OK, forget that. Can I watch movies on the Internet? ABBOTT: Yes, you want Real One. COSTELLO: Maybe a real one, maybe a cartoon. What I watch is none of your business. Just tell me what I need! ABBOTT: Real One. COSTELLO: If it's a long movie, I also want to watch reels 2, 3 and 4. Can I watch them? ABBOTT: Of course. COSTELLO: Great! With what? ABBOTT: Real One. COSTELLO: OK, I'm at my computer and I want to watch a movie. What do I do? ABBOTT: You click the blue "1". COSTELLO: I click the blue one what? ABBOTT: The blue "1". COSTELLO: Is that different from the blue w? ABBOTT: The blue "1" is Real One and the blue "W" is Word. COSTELLO: What word? ABBOTT: The Word in Office for Windows. COSTELLO: But there are three words in "office for windows"! ABBOTT: No, just one. But it's the most popular Word in the world.

Feasibility Study Essay

This study is developed to provide an entrepreneur with potential investment opportunity in setting up and operating a bar restaurant offering a variety of food and beverages items and accompanied by a quality service to the general public. This feasibility study gives an insight into various aspects of planning, setting up and operating a bar restaurant for the general populace. The study is designed to provide relevant details (including technical) to help entrepreneur in decision making by providing various technical as well as business alternatives. The study also allows flexibility to change various project parameters to suit the needs of an entrepreneur and the target market. Brief Background of the Study A bar restaurant is a food service establishment that serves food, non-alcoholic and alcoholic drinks — beer, wine, liquor, and cocktails — for consumption on the premises. Bar restaurants provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons. Some bar restaurant have entertainment on a stage, such as a live band, comedians, go-go dancers, or strippers. Bar restaurants which offer entertainment or live music are often referred to as music bars or nightclubs. Many bar restaurants have a happy hour to encourage off-peak guests. Bar restaurants that fill to capacity sometimes implement a cover charge or a minimum purchase requirement during their peak hours. Such barrestaurants often feature entertainment, which may be a live band or a disk jockey playing recorded music. The term â€Å"bar† is derived from the specialized counter on which drinks are served. Guests may sit or stand at the bar and be served by the bartender, or they may sit at tables and be served by cocktail servers. And restaurant caters complete set of meal to a target market, class of market or customers. So when the bar and restaurant were put up together, it has the expertise in serving food and beverages for their guests. The â€Å"back bar† is a set of shelves of glasses and bottles behind that counter. In some establishments, the back bar is elaborately decorated with woodwork, etched glass, mirrors, and lights. A bar restaurant’s owners and managers choose the establishment’s name, dà ©cor, drink menu, lighting, and other elements which they think will attract a certain kind of guests. However, they have only limited influence over who patronizes their establishment. Thus, a bar originally intended for one demographic profile can become popular with another. Objectives of the Study The objective of the feasibility study is primarily to facilitate us as a potential entrepreneurs in project identification for investment or putting up a business such as a bar restaurant. The project feasibility may form the basis of an important investment decision and in order to serve this objective, the document/study covers various aspects of project concept development, start-up, and production, finance and business management. The study will also determine if it is feasible for an entrepreneur to put up a bar restaurant in San Ramon Dinalupihan, Bataan. Market area, site selection, competition and financial analysis are made through observational research, surveys and literature review, and results of the analysis are concluded. Name of the Establishment In order to gain a success in establishing a food and beverage business, one should consider on creating a unique name but so easy to remember by the customers. Nowadays, you can find different establishments of food and beverages. So to be popular, you must be creative on choosing the best name for your business. Why ‘BARkada Lounge’? Barkada is a Tagalog word for friends. Having friend with someone is not that easy, it would take a while before you consider a person as one of your friends. At some point, you cannot consider even your family as a friend of yours, only if, you and her tagged a long for a while and knew each other’s secrets. In ‘BARkada Lounge’, you could bring any of your friends and you could also treat all the employees and staffs as one of your friends. Here, you can celebrate all the important occasions of your life and release the stress and burden that disturb you a lot, just like a friend. Our Logo The glass tankard with a full colourful music bar inside symbolizes for fun, entertainment and beverages. The two ovals shaped around the main logo: the red –which is outside – defines stop in our bar restaurant and; the green – which is inside – defines go and have fun inside. The stars that is about to fly defines everyone is a performer here, either you’re a singer or a dancer. Our Mission To provide a fun and entertaining bar restaurant service with top quality food that will exceed the customer’s expectations. Our Vision To be known in our chosen field and recognized as one of the best establishment providing the best eminence of foods that contribute to the growth of F&B and Hospitality Industry. Site Selection This section deals with the reason for choosing the site, site analysis evaluation, general area evaluation, local area evaluation and the vicinity map. Reason for Choosing the Site A restaurant’s location is as crucial to its success as great food and service. The location of a restaurant is the bridge between your target market and your concept. The most important aspect of site selection is to assure that all factors that could possibly have any bearing on the decision are considered carefully. Selection of a suitable site should come after the restaurateur has gathered the pertinent information and organized, analyzed, and evaluated it. The investigation should be exhaustive and follow a logical process. Decision factors vary in importance depending on the individual and the type of restaurant under consideration. The decision-making process in site selection must include large amount of information assembled and presented in a clear manner. If this is not done, the chance of making a wise choice is very slim. It is necessary to know the growth patterns of neighbourhoods to determine if a particular type of restaurant will be in demand for the foresee able future. The proposed location of ‘BARkada Lounge’ is at San Ramon Dinalupihan, Bataan. Dinalupihan is a first class municipality in the province of Bataan. A wide variety of different establishments such as food chains, grocery stores, mini bar houses, and the like are located in this place where people can find entertainment and relaxation. And as the demands of the increasing and unstable needs and wants of the community, they were much eager to experience a highly adaptive dining and trendy party setting in which you can found in Dinalupihan. Since Dinalupihan is in the middle of the two leading cities in the region III, which is the Olongapo and Balanga, the accessibility to both public and private establishments will definitely make the ‘BARkada Lounge’ easily identified to the public where people can enjoy a cozy atmosphere as well as foods and beverages, whether alcoholic or non-alcoholic. Site description and evaluation is the initial element in which that of determines the overall physical development of profitable well-planned and visually attractive food and beverage service facilities. Dinalupihan is a 1st class municipality in the province of Bataan, Philippines. It is the only land-locked municipality of the province. Dinalupihan is located 95 kms. east of Manila and can be reached through the Olongapo-Gapan route via the North Luzon Expressway. The town has a total land area of 4,460.00 hectares representing 6.69% of the total land area of Bataan. It is composed of 46 barangays with a total population of 92,289 people in 14,833 households. Dinalupihan is primarily an agricultural town whose main resources are palay, sugar cane, corn, root crops, legumes and fruits including livestock and poultry. Our proposed site for our future project is located at San Ramon Dinalupihan, Bataan. It is measured as 502 square meters. With this location, we are very confident that the project will be feasible and very effective to our chosen market. The relief varies from level, rolling and hilly to mountainous especially in the south and north-western sections of the area. The terrain of the municipality is gently sloping to undulating particularly the northern portion wherein cultivated lands are located. Between the northern and southern fringes are areas moderately sloping to rolling land with some scattered steep hills. The municipality is drained by numerous rivers and small streams with very few meanders radiating and sloping from the mountain groups down to the sea draining the whole area efficiently. Local Area Evaluation The study of our chosen location’s trading area, traffic, complementary and competing outlets, and vulnerability; parking surroundings, area changes, and cost meet our proposed needs as an entrepreneur. Visibility concerns the ability of potential shoppers to enjoy an unobstructed view of a store or its sign from a number of vantage points.It also considers ease of entrance and exit from the site. Local signage ordinances should be check and it is very useful to use the presence of distinguishing landmarks for an accurate direction of the site. Visibility is extremely important to the quality service food industry and popular-priced bar restaurants, because high visibility allows the consumer more time to change lanes and navigate the entrance to an eatery’s parking lot. The site is undeniably accessible to main arteries as the municipality’s public market going to Capitol Drive on the right side and vice versa. Locationally, accessibility represents the ease with which people move into and out of an area and, more particularly, into and out of a specific location. When determining accessibility, it is necessary to consider major and minor traffic arteries, number of lanes, speed limits, turn signals, turning lanes, curb cuts, and traffic backup, congestion points, and the existence of median strips. The value of a location also depends the accessibility of both public and private modes of transportation, such as customers and suppliers, to and from the site. The ‘BARkada Lounge’ will be very easy for residents and non-residents of the area to find, with the adequacy and potential of vehicular or passenger is unquestionably high, as we go with the flow of the continuous economy growth in the Municipality of Dinalupihan. Through pipe system, the Dinalupihan Water District has the full charge of water supply distribution in the area. The most common source of water is its ground water. Hence, the water supply in the Municipality of Dinalupihan is very sufficient. Major telephone companies servicing the town are Digital Telecommunications (Digitel) and Bayan Telecommunications (BayanTel). Cellular phones are also available through Smart/TalknText, Globe/Touch Mobile, Sun Cellular and Mobiline. Radio Communications Philippines, Inc. (RCPI), provides telegram and telegraph services. Electricity is provided by Peninsula Electric Cooperative (PENELCO). The Dinalupihan Water District serves 19 barangays while other areas use free-flowing pumps and deep wells. The town has a total of 8 banks, 7 schools, 3 hospitals/health facilities, and 4 recreational facilities. Traffic Counts The study consists of data collection, including existing traffic volumes and turning movement counts, projected traffic volumes and the identification of required improvements such as traffic calming devices. This information can be gathered either by an automated tube counter or manually by a County staff which pertains to position personnel who perform traffic counts at intersections, usually during the time in which rush hour arises, to count and record the volume of traffic passing through and turning movements of the vehicles through an intersection. Traffic counts were performed by researchers on the day and hours they predicted that might peak day or hours will occur. The number of vehicles that passed by the site was shown at the table below. ‘BARkada Lounge’ was based on the economic status of these people who will be our future target market as indicated by the type of vehicle they are in.

The 5 P’s of International Business

If you're wondering why nations trade with each other. It's because of the 5 P's: Product, Price, Proximity Promotion, and Preference. Product No country can produce all its own goods and services, a trade is obvious solution. A country's resources determine what goods and services it can produce. PriceDue to wages, taxes, fuel and other transportation costs, the costs of producing various goods from country to country may vary. Businesses in foreign countries may be able to produce products cheaper, which they can sell their products at a lower price at Canada. ProximityBorder cities such as Windsor and Ontario are tremendously influenced by their American counterparts. Businesses from both sides of the border share and exchange goods and services. Promotion With global technology such as the internet, business can let people far away know about the goods and services they are selling.Factoring Affecting The Flow Of Goods ; ServicesConsumer Needs and IncomesThe amount of money that consumers have to spend has a direct impact on the flow of goods and services in a country. In some parts in the world some people have a lot of money to spend while in other places people's income barely cover basic needs. Currency Values Most nations have their own kind of currency. The exchange rate refers to the value of one's country' currency against the currencies of other countries. It helps determine how much we pay for imported goods and services and how much we receive for what we export. When the Canadian dollars falls, imported goods become more expensive, and we tend to reduce the volume of our imports. How To Convert To Other CurrenciesConverting Canadian To Another Currency:Canadian dollar is trading at 80 US Cents How many US dollars will purchase $40 worth of Canadian products?Amount = Fund x Rate1 Can = 0.8 US1 x 40 Can = 0.8 x 40 US40 Can = 32 US$32 American to buy $40 worth of Canadian products.Converting Another Currency To Canadian:Given that the Canadian dollar is trading at 90 US cents. How many Canadian dollars will purchase $70 worth of American products?Amount = 1 divide Rate x Fund1 Can = 0.9 US1 divide 0.9 CAN = 0.9 divide 0.9 US1.11 x 70 Can = 1 x 70 US77.78 CAN = 70 US$77.78 Canadian to buy $70 worth of American products.Advantages And Disadvantages Of International BusinessAdvantages: increased markets for businessesa broader choice of products, services, and prices for consumerscreate jobsexchange knowledge which results in new approaches to production, marketing, and selling.political benefits: partners in trade seldom go to war with each otherimprove understandingincrease the level of respect people have for one another. Disadvantages: less money to spend on domestic goodsnew industries will not be able to compete with well-established industries in other countriesunfair competition due to cheap foreign labourcompetition from foreign enterprises may lead to losing of jobsBarriers To International BusinessTariffCountries place a tax called a tariff on-in-coming goods to protect domestic manufacturing. A tariff barrier slows the entry of foreign goods by making them more expensive.QuotaThis is a limit on the number of products in a category that can come into a country. The quota on clothing and textile import.EmbargoEmbargo is a complete stop to the transfer goods and it is often used as a form of political or social protest. Health and Safety Standards Countries can set such high health and safety standards for imported goods that it becomes more difficult for foreign competitors to enter the market. Trade Agreement & PactsOne of the earliest trade agreements the GATT ( General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) brought over 100 major trading nations in 1947.It was based on 3 major principles:equal non-discriminatory treatment for all member nationsgeneral reduction of tariffsthe eliminations of non-tariff barriers

Essay on Political Parties and Interest Groups

Essay on Political Parties and Interest Groups Essay on Political Parties and Interest Groups Essay on Political Parties and Interest Groups1). In your opinion, why do people tend to identify less with political parties? And does it matter?  Ã‚  Ã‚   People tend to identify less with political parties because people view political parties as complex bureaucratic structures, which have little to do with interests and needs of the average people. In addition, people perceive political parties as institutions that stand for certain ideological framework. The lack of identification of people with political parties raises the problem of the widening gap between the political elite and people.   2). Name three corporations that spend a lot of money (for 2013) to lobby the government and that get their views supported through the approval of policies.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Companies lobbying their interests in the US rely heavily on the government contracts. In this regard, it is worth mentioning such companies as Boeing, General Electric and Google. Boeing and General Electric are traditional companies oriented on lobbying. At the same time, Google is a new player but role of such companies as Google in lobbying is likely to increase in the future.   3). Does the government have a right to regulate the money spend to lobby it (govt)? Why/why not?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The government does not have the right to regulate the money spend to lobby because lobbyist groups emerge respectively to the emergence of interest groups. Each interest group stands for its own interests. The government regulation of money spend on lobbying will create unfair condition for lobbying that may put some companies into an advantageous position, while others can fail to maintain the fair competition in the market.

Cry the Beloved Country Analysis essays

Cry the Beloved Country Analysis essays In Alan Patons Cry, The Beloved Country wealthy versus poor is contrasted to show the past, present and future of South Africa. In doing this Paton shows his hope for change of the treatment and lives of the South African natives to make South Africa society equal. The equality as well as the lives of the wealthy and the poor is a central theme in the novel that is contrasted throughout it. Old Couple Robbed and Beaten in Lonely House. Four Natives Arrested. That happens nearly everyday (Paton 52). When these crimes happen it is the white people who fear the natives as well as the natives themselves despite the fact that it is known that some crimes are done out of desperation. The majority of the wealthy turn against the poor masses in general rather than trying to help. Theyd work if they were enforced. but I tell you theyre enforceable. Do you know that we send one hundred thousand natives every year to prison, where they mix This passage refers to the pass laws that were trying to be enforced which would have only resulted in hurting the masses rather than helping them. Not only do the white Afrikaners turn against the poor but also non-whites are not as innocent as one would think when it comes to the treatment of poor. Well, well I shall not say it is a bad thing. Johannesburg is not a place for a woman alone. I myself tried to persuade her, but she did not agree, so we did not meet any more (69). John Kumalo made this statement in reference to Gertrude. While he is an advocate for the poor he seems as though it didnt occur to him to help his own sister who is obviously poor or at least less fortunate. Gertrude is, at this point, working as prostitute and one would think that while making a name for himself he would try to look in on the welfare of his sister if not for her sake but to maintain his own dignity and that of his family. ...

Bleakness and Futility in Chapter 2 of The Great Gatsby

Consider the second chapter of Great Gates, pages 23-25; investigate Fitzgerald 's image, form, structure, and his comments on American society in the 1920' s. The swaying and bleaky images of the Valley of Ash juxtaposed with the end of the starlight in Chapter 1 show the devastation and useless of the society of the 1920s Jazz era. It embodies the spiritual hollow nature of society, eventually collapsing and falling into its fundamental entity-free nature. The connection of the hedonistic carnival in the opening chapter finds the division of the metaphor in the contradiction of Chapter 2; they collapse like the American dream structure. Gatsby is wonderful. When you pick up the book, the first thing you see is the title Great Gatsby so you expect Gatsby before opening the book. As we revealed in the first chapter that the narrator is the same as Gatsby's neighbor Nick Calloway, it tells us that he hates Gatsby, but at the end of the paragraph he marks the character of Gatsby gorgeo us . Scott Fitzgerald's great Gatsby was known as a roaring twenty in the American history in the 1920s. Scott Fitzgerald's novel The Great Gatsby reflects the life of the 1920s. In the roaring twenties, prospering parties, outstanding fresh fashion trends, and excessive alcohol are every aspect of life. The magnificent party of Scott Fitzgerald's Great Gatsby reflects the American life in the 1920s. Gatsby shows his excellent wealth by opening a spectacular party We must recognize that there are many similarities between Great Gatsby and its author F. Scott Fitzgerald. Most importantly, Great Gatsby was done in the 1920s, and Fitzgerald experienced this period. The 1920s was an important point in Fitzgerald 's life. It is just like the important link in this novel. But the period is not the only similarity between Fitzgerald and great Gatsby, but it is the one that can best form the story. Fitzgerald is one of the themes of Great Gatsby, focusing on important differences between th e pursuit of dreams and the realization of dreams. Fitzgerald does not directly address this idea, but it plays it through the actions of the character. For example, in Chapter 5, Gatsby showed Daisy and Nick all the wealth he accumulated to impress Daisy. The author's topic can be seen in the behavior of Gatsby.

Discuss the current impact of health informatics in health care Essay

Discuss the current impact of health informatics in health care. Consider the role of these systems in maintaing patient safety and ensuring that a high standar - Essay Example Coverage of information technology solutions in the medical and health field under the rubrics of the two terms is converging. Computers in Health Care are well accepted the world over as clinical and diagnostic aids, to improve patient care, tone up administration, facilitate accounting and enable effective management control. An important application has been in hospital management, where computers have been an effective tool for doctors, nursing, administration and management. The federal government, through the Australian Department of Health and Ageing, sets national health policies and subsidises the provision of health services by State and Territory governments and the private sector. Health currently accounts for about 9.3 per cent of Australias gross domestic product. Australia has a fairly complex healthcare system, comprising both public and private hospitals and medical practitioners and literally dozens of insurance schemes set up to fund them. The federal government funds universal medical services and pharmaceuticals, and gives financial assistance to public hospitals, residential care facilities, hostels, and home and community care. It is also the major source of funds for health research, and provides support for the training of health professionals and financial assistance to tertiary students.   State and Territory governments have primary responsibility under the Constitution for the actual provision of health services, including most acute and psychiatric hospital services. The States and Territories also provide a wide range of community and public health services, including school health, dental health, maternal and child health, occupational health, disease control activities and a variety of health inspection functions.   The main health responsibilities of local government are in environmental control such as garbage disposal, clean water, and health

What's your point of view Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

What's your point of view - Essay Example As such, can such people put away technology and embark on simple methods of operations? This could be adapted by just a few individuals while the others would like to think of concepts like an ideal thus lack the effort and self sacrifice in making the ideal a reality. However, such individuals console themselves by asserting that vast amounts of land and forests have been kept for people to experience the simplicity with which fishing, hunting, camping can bring. This does not mean that we lack our roots to the earth and world. As long as we have balance that has been kept between advancement in our civilization and the connection to nature, then we have to flourish in the both ways in the society (Wright 98). However, there have been instances when we cannot achieve this balance as some people are overly saturated by one way instead of incorporating the other ways. This rages the debate on. We can neither go back to our advancements, nor can we forget on how to move on without these advances and the connections we have to nature. Therefore, if we embrace both we are bound to succeed, but with one, we will stagnate, become our own means of destruction and falter. In the medical sector, several advancements have been carried out and there is still more advances in our daily lives. People easily access better medical attention and can live for a very long period as opposed to the earlier days. However, due to the long period number of days, people are now exposed to difficulties brought out by the advanced age and diseases such as dementia, Alzheimer and the aged have become a burden to the society as there is no specific place to take care of them (Postman 34). Video games and computers have become very popular among the teens, adults and children after undergoing several advances (Kelly 76). However, there are several debates which have come up in accordance to the appropriateness of

How has the development of Political Islam since 1979 affected the Essay

How has the development of Political Islam since 1979 affected the Greater Middle East - Essay Example Iran is one example where the Iranian revolution took place. Islamist forces have seemingly taken control of their countries at the expense of other religions that make up a minority (Choueiri, 2008). As political Islam has developed, Islamic institutions have gained more power and the scrutiny on these institutions has reduced leading to a dictatorship like scenario. Religious institutions like those of Sunni Islam have been brought under the control of the state. Due to this power gain by Islamic institutions, along with the lack of opposition by secular forces, there has been a development of Islamic forces. These forces have created a threat to the power of the state all over the greater Middle East (Choueiri, 2008). Conflict has been at the heart of the development of political Islam. The conflict has disturbed the stability of the greater Middle East. Examples of these conflicts include Iraq’s invasion of Iran in 1980 and the Iraq-Kuwait war. There has also been an increased opposition to the existence of Israel as a state along with an increase in development of weapons by the greater Middle East nations (Freedman,

Path of Light Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Path of Light - Lab Report Example Light travels in a straight path at 300, 000km per second or at proximately 186, 000miles per second; however the velocity of light is considered slower in glass and water (Katz, Small and Silberberg, 2012). Objects and devices prevent the travel of light in a straight line causing refraction commonly referred as the bending of light (Minnaert, 2013). In the first experiment testing the movement of light in a straight line without any obstruction or not encountering any interface, the light path is considered extremely straight. Thus, it is deduced that whether light travel in water, air, glass, and diamond or any other object it moves in the straight line until it meets an object or a different medium. It is believed that it travels a constant speed c referred to as the speed of light. This c is calculated to be 300,000 kilometers per second (Katz, Small and Silberberg, 2012). It is realized that light is emitted or reflected by visible objects. It is also noted that when objects reflect light, it moves in all directions. It is believed that the reflected light forms the image in our eyes (Fleming, JÃ ¤kel, and Maloney, 2011). The path of light is regarded straight, and it is belied to travel at a constant speed in a uniform material until it encounters an object or another material. In the first experiment, it is shown that light travel straight until it meets another object where it becomes refracted making it bend (Katz, Small and Silberberg, 2012). In the second experiment, we make a pinhole viewer that is used to allow light from the source through small holes made in the aluminum foil. When viewed through it is realized that there is a bright light on the tape that creates an image (Minnaert, 2013). In conclusion, the experiment shows how light travels through objects. Besides, it shows how light travels in a straight line unless destructed by objects where it is emitted (Katz, Small and Silberberg,

How groupthink affects the effectiveness of groups Essay

How groupthink affects the effectiveness of groups - Essay Example This essay discusses that in 1952, William H. Whyte had coined a unique term in Fortune magazine, known as â€Å"groupthink†. This term reflected conformity culture that has shaped many business organizations. Groupthink has both positive and negative impacts on group effectiveness. The major goal of groupthink is to achieve consensus through conflict eradication. This approach tends to change workplace environment by shifting focus towards minimizing conflict rather than obtaining desirable results. Groupthink influences group members to act in harmony and this adversely affects individual thought process. Innovation is not a prime concern as per the concept of groupthink. This negatively affects the formulation of the high-performance group. Group effectiveness is mainly dependent on two aspects such as working as a team and facilitating high productivity level. High productivity level can be correlated with efficiently responding to fluctuating market demand and acquiring k nowledge on technological advancements. Group effectiveness is high only when group members are capable enough to understand external conditions and accordingly formulate strategic decisions. However, there are certain positive effects of groupthink in relation to sustaining harmony within a group. Group conflict can be considered as one of the reasons behind decreased team productivity. Groupthink attempts to eliminate this cause by cultivating a common ground of interests. Performance of a new organization is positively affected by groupthink.

How has the development of Political Islam since 1979 affected the Essay

How has the development of Political Islam since 1979 affected the Greater Middle East - Essay Example Iran is one example where the Iranian revolution took place. Islamist forces have seemingly taken control of their countries at the expense of other religions that make up a minority (Choueiri, 2008). As political Islam has developed, Islamic institutions have gained more power and the scrutiny on these institutions has reduced leading to a dictatorship like scenario. Religious institutions like those of Sunni Islam have been brought under the control of the state. Due to this power gain by Islamic institutions, along with the lack of opposition by secular forces, there has been a development of Islamic forces. These forces have created a threat to the power of the state all over the greater Middle East (Choueiri, 2008). Conflict has been at the heart of the development of political Islam. The conflict has disturbed the stability of the greater Middle East. Examples of these conflicts include Iraq’s invasion of Iran in 1980 and the Iraq-Kuwait war. There has also been an increased opposition to the existence of Israel as a state along with an increase in development of weapons by the greater Middle East nations (Freedman,

How groupthink affects the effectiveness of groups Essay

How groupthink affects the effectiveness of groups - Essay Example This essay discusses that in 1952, William H. Whyte had coined a unique term in Fortune magazine, known as â€Å"groupthink†. This term reflected conformity culture that has shaped many business organizations. Groupthink has both positive and negative impacts on group effectiveness. The major goal of groupthink is to achieve consensus through conflict eradication. This approach tends to change workplace environment by shifting focus towards minimizing conflict rather than obtaining desirable results. Groupthink influences group members to act in harmony and this adversely affects individual thought process. Innovation is not a prime concern as per the concept of groupthink. This negatively affects the formulation of the high-performance group. Group effectiveness is mainly dependent on two aspects such as working as a team and facilitating high productivity level. High productivity level can be correlated with efficiently responding to fluctuating market demand and acquiring k nowledge on technological advancements. Group effectiveness is high only when group members are capable enough to understand external conditions and accordingly formulate strategic decisions. However, there are certain positive effects of groupthink in relation to sustaining harmony within a group. Group conflict can be considered as one of the reasons behind decreased team productivity. Groupthink attempts to eliminate this cause by cultivating a common ground of interests. Performance of a new organization is positively affected by groupthink.

IP address Final Essay Example for Free

IP address Final Essay WAN Design lt;namegt; Axia College The ACME Manufacturing company, headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, is growing at a fast pace. Located at the Atlanta campus are two offices, one houses the operations, marketing, administration, and accounting sections. The other building has offices for the engineering and sales departments. ACME is spread throughout the United States; with offices in New York, Chicago, and Phoenix. They have also recently acquired a facility in China. With the recent expansion, ACME will need a new wide area network (WAN) and a state-of-the-art phone system to ensure the company operates at optimal levels. To make administration of the ACME WAN easier the network should be designed using the star topology. With this configuration, each branch office will have only a direct connection back to the headquarters in Atlanta. The type of connection to each location stateside can vary on the size of the remote office. I would recommend going with a minimum of a full T1 line or even a T3. The China location can be connected via a satellite connection leased by the company. The following figure is a graphical representation of the WAN configuration. Atlanta T1 T1 T1 New York Phoenix Chicago China Satellite WAN Layout for ACME Manufacturing IP Ranges For modeling purposes, let’s assume ACME is using a class B network address; for example 192. 168. x. x. To help keep the individual departments separate, the network administration will need to configure a few subnets. Each subnet on the network will be a VLAN, or virtual local area network. In order for us to have the proper amount of subnets, the subnet mask will be set to 255. 255. 240. 0. This will give ACME a maximum of sixteen subnets and 4,094 hosts in each subnet. Hardware Requirements New Cisco switches and routers will supply the routing necessary for Acme’s data. Cisco Catalyst switches will provide VLAN functionality; these switches can accept broadcast packets and forward them only through the ports that are designated by the VLAN configuration; this enhances security by keeping interdepartmental traffic from reaching other departments. Using VTP, all VLANs will only need to be configured from the switch acting as the VTP server. The Cisco routers will define broadcast domains and will use the link-state routing protocol OSPF that works well with the IP addressing scheme in use. STP, configured on the Cisco switches, will allow us to build redundancy into the network and avoid data loops (Regan, 2004). Wireless technologies promote productivity by allowing network users to remain connected to the network when using wireless devices. The installation of wireless access points will grant high-speed network connectivity to wireless devices. Because Acme will be leasing dedicated network media, a CSU/DSU will be required to terminate those lines at each of the distribution locations and at the headquarters building. CSUs/DSUs also place digital signals on the line, control transmission strength, support loopback tests, and synchronize the timing received on the line. Leased lines require a different frame type to be used for data than is regularly used in a LAN environment; a CSU/DSU also converts LAN frames into frames usable on the leased lines (Regan, 2004). Telephony With all of the new technology sprouting up daily, and the cost of long distance calls dropping, a feasible solution would be to install a private branch exchange (PBX) at each location. But with the addition of China into the company’s holdings, a voice over internet protocol (VoIP) system would be the better choice to avoid international charges. With a VoIP system, each location can be set up on a three or four digit dialing plan so users can communicate easier. For example, John in Atlanta can dial a four digit number and reach Chang in China. Security After the infrastructure is set up and the network is online, the security of the network is the most important job of the network team. By keeping all devices up to date with the latest security patches, anti-virus, and spyware removal tools will help eliminate malicious bugs from infecting your system. By installing firewalls at each location and only opening the ports needed for email, http, ftp, etc will keep hackers out of your system and your data safe. Set up a policy that forces users to change their passwords every 90 days using an alpha-numeric and special character code. Even going as far as adding a PKI system to your login will help keep your network limited to authorized users. References Regan, P. E. (2004). Wide area networks. Upper Saddle River, N. J. : Pearson/Prentice Hall. Ou, G. (2006, June 28). IP subnetting made easy. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from TechRepublic: http://articles. techrepublic. com. com/5100-10878_11-6089187. html Yudkowsky, C. (2002, July). Voice Over IP vs PBX. Retrieved August 2, 2010, from VoIP News: http://www. voip-news. com/byte2. htm

Media Effects Theory Evaluation

Media Effects Theory Evaluation This chapter consists of two parts. In the first section I will critically review media effects theories and explore relevant theoretical approaches underpinning active audience studies. I will also discuss recent studies exploring media influence, delving into the methodological approaches as well as observing different ways that the media are claimed to have impact on peoples understanding. In particular, I will focus on literatures in areas of risks and health, as well as examining studies utilising creative methods for studying media influence, all which I will relate to my findings chapters. The way in which media influence is contextualised in this research however, should not be misunderstood as trying to prove any direct impact media have on people. Instead, my intention is to offer ways of thinking about media influence and hopefully this would help build a link between my findings and the theoretical body. I will reiterate my stance towards the end of the chapter whilst sit uating my research within literatures of media influence. In the second part of my literature, I will explore research conducted in areas of infant feeding, in particular to studies about breastfeeding and the media. This section will offer variety ways of exploring breastfeeding issues and how studying the media would fit into the social context and problems related to breastfeeding. I will also explore studies conducted in different cultural settings, which hopes to highlight the different ways culture and religion can influence infant feeding practices and their overall understanding of breastfeeding. What I hope to achieve by the end of this chapter is to give an idea of the different directions to studying breastfeeding in the media and defend my approach in this thesis. I then conclude this chapter by positioning my research within the theoretical, methodological and empirical framework that I have explored throughout. Media Effects, active audiences and beyond Review of Media effects theories Early works on media influence are focused on medias effects on human behaviours (ref). The idea that the media has powerful effects on people gained ground during the 1930s, in light of the elites fascist treatment towards society and dictators using the media as propaganda tool in countries like Germany and Russia. Research emphasis at the time was to find out what the media can do to people (ref) and this brought about the first theory of media effects (the hypodemic needle model), envisioned by scholars of the Frankfurt school in 1923 which suggests that media content are injected into audience thoughts and thus would influence their behaviours. Such studies assumed causal link between mass media and mass audience, suggesting that the media has a magic bullet effect that could result to media-inspired mass behavior (for example see works of Cantril et al., 1940; Lasswell 1927 and Lippman, 1922). Researchers at the time sought to link between media representations and mass behavio r, mostly were concerned over the (harmful) effects media has on society. This gave rise to studies supporting strong media effects and sets the parameter for most media research that took place between the 1940s to the 1960s (for example see Bandura and Walters, 1963; Lazarsfeld et al., 1944). It was one of the reasons why media effects studies was popular and gained much importance in the field of media studies at the time. However, hypodemic needle model or magic bullet theory is flawed in so many ways. The word media effects itself put much emphasis and power to the media that followers of hypodemic needle model / magic bullet theory often ignored the fact that audience themselves are active producers of meaning. Media and audience relationship does not exist in void but is involved and influenced by many things, among others, social context, culture and political-economy of a society. Audience consists of individuals who have different social and cultural backgrounds which makes it problematic if not impossible, to conceptualise one mass audience. It is then renders attempts to measure media effects difficult and complex. Researchers tried to improve this link by including additional stages/layers to media effects, such is done by Lazarsfeld and Katz (1955) when they introduced opinion leaders into the process a model which is also known as the two steps flow. What this model argues is that the effects of media on audience are mediated by different key individuals, who tends to be people with most access to the media and are assumed to be more media literate. These are opinion leaders who are sought to explain and diffuse media content to others. Although this model reduces the direct effects, it still simplifies the process involved between media and audience, and more importantly maintains audiences position at the receiving end of this relationship. This does not only sustain the idea that audiences are passive but also renders them incapable of producing their own interpretations. Another social theory which tries to explain media effects was developed by George Gebner in the 1960s, known as the Cultivation theory. The theory proposed that the media has long term effects on audiences, nurturing certain ideas through representations and media discourse. The cultivation theory springs from a large-scale research project called Cultural Indicators, a project that was aimed to explore media processes and track effects (particularly violent programming) on audiences (Miller, 2005, p.  281). A part of the study investigates the relationship between audience attention to media messages and their conceptions of social reality (Morgan, p;70 and Shanahan and Morgan p. 6-7). Findings suggest that exposure to television, over time subtly cultivates audiences perceptions of reality. This cultivation effects are claimed to affect light television viewers as well because the media (television) functions as a tool for socialisation and enculturation process (Gerbner an d Gross, 1976:175). Therefore, the theory suggests that any impact television has on heavy users will also, in time, impact on the entire culture. Gerbner et al (1986:23) later notes that this impact does not necessarily imply a unidirectional process but rather, it is a complex development built through subtle interactions between medium and its publics. Miller (2005:282) reiterates this point by explaining that the impetus of cultivation theory was not to prove specific media effects on behaviours, but to highlight medias overarching influence towards the way people think about the world. Gerbners idea was widely accepted however, similar to the previous media effects theories, it supports the notion that audience is vulnerable and easily manipulated. Cultivation theory asserts power to the media and regards audiences as subjects with limited interpretation, ignoring their social context and ability to generate own meanings. The many limitations of media effects theories have prompted researchers to switch focus. Following cluster of research in media studies question media power and shift emphasis towards studying audiences and their use of the media. Theorists such as Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., Gurevitch, M. (1974) argued for a model that acknowledges audience as powerful receivers. They proposed Uses and Gratification theory which challenged the traditional way of looking at media-audience relationship by asking what people do with the media rather than what the media does to people (Katz, 1959). This approach suggests that people have specific needs and use the media to satisfy them or gain specific gratifications. Blumler and Katz (1974) proposed four broad audience needs that are fulfilled by the media. These include diversions (a form of escapism from everyday life), Personal Relationships (where viewers build communities through conversations about television or how they relate to the characters) , Personal Identity (where audience explore, re-affirm or question their identity in regards to the characters identities) and Surveillance (where the media are referred for information about what is happening elsewhere). These four needs are argued to represent the ways audience establish their relationship with the media. While uses and gratification model provides a useful framework for thinking about audiences relationship with the media, critics question the fundamental structure of this theory. Researchers who are in support of media effects theories for example, questioned the notion of gratification itself, which in a way could be seen as a media effect. It was also argued that this approach focused heavily on audience use of the media, rather than how audiences make meanings of media content. Therefore, uses and gratification theory does not foregrounds itself in the theoretical debate, rather it focuses on the methodological approach of media studies, offering a way of doing media research, as opposed to contextualizing the relationship between media and audience (Littlejohn, 2002; Severin and Tankard, 1997; McQuail 1994). Therefore, studies adopting this approach were more focused on examining audience psychological needs and often overlook the importance of socio-cultural elements of audienc e needs. All the theoretical approaches discussed thus far have only allocated power to either the audience or the media. One of the pioneer works to break away from this over emphasis of unilateral power was established by Stuart Halls through his encoding/decoding model. Hall (1980) argues that media producers encode specific meanings in media text, which is distributed to audiences who will then decode and (re)produce these meanings through their own understanding (Hall, 1980:128). Hall suggests that the media (television) is an iconic sign because it possesses some of the qualities for the object in which they represent (Hall, 1980:131) and the process involved to produce and interpret these iconic signs is known as encoding/decoding. Hall does not just chart a middle ground between audience and the media but also introduced media producers into the equation and their roles in this relationship. Hall argues that producers agendas and assumptions are encoded in media text and that this shapes the preferred meanings of the text, albeit embedded in codes and convention of a particular medium to hide the text own ideological construction. Such meanings limit and guide audience interpretations, although specific frameworks outside the text such as socio-economic frameworks (for example gender, education and ethnicity), do play a role to influence audiences interpretations. Halls approach is in line with the social constructionists, where previous knowledge as well as experience of the media and the subject discussed played an important part to help construct peoples perception. While Halls notion of preferred meanings does not suggest that audience is homogenous, their interpretations will however, be consistent to producers intended idea. However, he suggests that audience can encode preferred meanings in a slightly different manner, in which Hall refers to as the margin of understanding. Halls encoding/decoding model suggests the meaning of a text lies somewhere between the producer and the reader. One of the reasons why encoding/decoding model is significant in media studies is because it balances the relationship between the media and audience, returning some power to the media while maintaining audience as active participants. This approach acknowledges both audience and the media as sites of meaning making. Hall further develops a model for the types of audience decoding. The four identified readings are (1)Dominant when audience recognise and agree with the preferred meaning offered by media text (2)Oppositional when audience understand the preferred meaning but disagree with it because it contradicts to their own set of beliefs and attitudes (3)Negotiated when audience opposes or adapts to the preferred meaning and (4)Aberrant decoding when audience gives meanings deviant to the preferred meaning. Morley however notes that this model is limited because preferred meaning is itself an unclear concept. This is because the model tends to overlap text and producers intention as preferred meaning, when they actually involve different processes and that preferred meaning may not always be embedded in text. It is therefore difficult to conceptualise preferred meaning, one which can be easily confused with something that is agreed by majority of the text audience. Kitzinger (1998) further argues that oppositional reading is sometimes a problematic term because people do not necessarily understand the preferred meaning. In her research she found out that peoples understanding sometimes intersect with pre-existing knowledge and mental pictures of other things, particularly when an issue is new and has not received much media attention. For example, in her research she found that some people do not understand the preferred meanings of HIV media awareness campaign and uses their pre-existing knowledge of AIDS as a way to understand and decode media messages about HIV. Nonetheless, despite limitations to Halls types of audience readings, encoding/decoding model continues to serve as an advantageous model in media studies. Among others, Halls encoding/decoding model has led to an increasing interest to explore media reception and audiences as active participants. A significant body of work developed in the UK focused on audience studies, but positioned within cultural framework (for example see Ang 1985; Morley, 1980; Radway, 1987). The foundations for this body of work is championed by Hall himself at the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (BCCCS) and his colleagues such as David Morley (1980) who explored how people from different (sub)cultures responded to the same media output (the BBC channel current affairs programme Nationwide). His Nationwide Audience Research adopted a semiotic approach to understanding audience responses to media text. Morley compiled audience responses from various different class and social/cultural backgrounds after they watched an episode of the news/current affairs programme Nationwide. Through these interviews, Morley tried to observe whether participan ts obtained a preferred reading from the programme. In a way, Morleys work puts Halls Encoding/Decoding model to the test. From his findings, Morley argues that encoding/decoding model is insufficient because it underestimated the variety of determinants in decoding a reading (Fiske, 1989). Morley argues that people may decode according to Halls audiences decoding positions but this process intersects with sociological demographics such as age, gender and also the context for viewing the programme (Morley, 1980:26; 199299). What this propose is that the meaning of text is interpreted within audiences sociological and cultural framework which may influence their knowledge, prejudices and resistance towards a discourse. Members of a given sub-culture will tend to share a cultural orientation towards decoding messages in particular ways and that their individual readings, whether dominant, negotiated or oppositional are framed by shared cultural formations and practices (1981b, p. 51). This shared cultural interpretation may (or may not) cut across different groups from different economic backgrounds and social class (Morley 1980). In his body of work, audiences are seen to actively consume media for pleasure, reinforcement and identity construction, a framework that focuses on media consumption and the role media play in popular culture. By emphasising that the meaning is not in the text, but in the reading (siapa) it opens up possibilities for audience reception studies and looking at the relationship between media and audience, in relations to other social context. His study was therefore considered one of the major turn around point in the history of media studies. According to David Morley: Before Messages can have effects on audiences, they must be decoded. Effects is thus a shorthand, and inadequate, way of marking the point where audiences read and make sense of messages. (Morley 1978, p125 (emphasis added) He later adds Of course, there will always be individual private readings, but we need to investigate the extent to which these individual readings are patterned into cultural structures and clusters (Morley 1980) Researchers continued to explore reception studies and studying audience became a popular trend for media researchers in the 1990s. Expanding Morleys approach which looks at how people from different cultural backgrounds interpret representations in media, researchers were interested to explore peoples personal and socio-cultural context as an integral part for understanding the rich range of meanings decoded and understood by media audience. On the whole, these studies adopted a culturalist perspective and are concerned with exploring audience active choices, consumptions and interpretations of media materials. Such research emphasizes audience interpretations of the text based on their individual cultural background and life experiences. In essence, the meaning of a text is not inherent within the text itself, but is created within different processes involved in the relationship between the text and the reader. For example, Katz and Liebel (1985) conducted a cross-cultural study on television soap Dallas in Japan, Israel and Russia. They concluded that various ethnic groups differed in their interpretation of foreign television programme, in which they referred to as critical distance. From the research, Liebes (1988:281) suggested that different groups perceive selectively towards what they watch and that this played a part in the forms of retelling and the talk they generate about a television program. A basic acceptance of the meaning of a specific text tends to occur when audience share traits and cultural background, which then may lead to the text being interpreted in similar ways. Culture has an interpretative function for the members of a group which share that particular culture. Nonetheless, expressions of culture-resultant behaviour are modified by the individuals personality, upbringing and life-experience to a considerable degree. Developments in cross-cultural audience studies have deepened our understanding of media reception in different cultures and the different relationship audiences have with the media. This process plays a role in the development of other issues for example, production of identity and popular culture. Audience use existing cultural frameworks to (re)construct meaning from a media text, thus it is through audience interpretations that we are able to gain more comprehension towards the culture to which that audience belongs (Gauntlett). This new approach for looking at media-audiences relationship was coined New Audience Research (Ang 1996, Morley 1990, etc). Researchers such as Curran et. al. (1996) saw this as a revolutionary rethink of the dispersion of power within the media-audience relationship, while scholars such as Fiske (1987) proclaim power of the audience. As Fiske commented on Morleys Nationwide Study: Its value for us lies in its shift away of emphasis away from the textual and ideological construction of the subjects to socially and historically situated people. It reminds us that actual people in actual situations watch and enjoy actual television programmes. (Fiske 1989, p63) Indeed Fiske, ever enthusiastic of Morleys research, said that it established ethnographic research as a legitimate tool to understand audiences (Fiske 1989). The focus on human beings in their social settings seems to a contemporary reader to be quite an obvious component of audience research. The influential academic journal Screen began to take up the idea that the audience was made up of more meaning than that disseminated by the text (Fiske 1989). This led to a generation of media and cultural studies protagonists who turned their focus away from semiotic analysis of the text and the individual and tried to focus on the social background of the audiences and how they decode the text itself. Their work appeared from the early 70s to the mid 80s and mostly conducted qualitative field work on small groups from targeted socioeconomic backgrounds (Nightingale 1996). The idea of the audience being able to make their own readings and the move away from semiotics was given a more pluralistic (Morley 1990) element by cultural studies writer John Fiske. Fiske was influenced heavily by the French polymath Michel de Certeau (Underwood, 2008), who advocated that people were continuously trying to undermine the dominant culture by creating tactics of resistance within everyday life. Fiske incorporated this into the idea of the active audience (Fiske 1989, pp 62-83), believing that audiences constantly tried to find new meanings inside media and that it was programmes that were made by industry, not text. Fiske maintained that: Texts are the product of their readers. So a programme becomes a text at the moment of reading. (Fiske 1989, p 14) And that: Texts are the site of conflictà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦between production and reception. (Fiske 1989, p14). From this freedom of meaning and conflict, audiences are capable of creating all sorts of resistance readings to the preferred dominant culture, constantly changing it in the process as elites try to catch up and encircle the masses into its fold once more. Fiske (1990) takes the example of jeans as fashion items they produce jeans and we alter them to look more trendy, so they react again. Creating a cycle of resistance by the active audiences/consumers and the dominant classes. Fiske continues, maintaining that there is no such thing as a homogenised audience, but rather a collection of pluralised audiences that are created from a multiplicity of backgrounds. Fiske maintained that this multiplicity of meaning amounts to a semiotic democracy (Fiske 1989, p95) where people are culturally competent enough to not need media experts to help them. This goes much further, it could be argued, than Morley, as Fiske seems to be saying that the actual meaning of any programme could be completely different, not just oppositional, negotiated, or dominant. Fiskes argument causes problems for many media researchers as it means that they are almost incapable of discovering how audiences think and behave. Indeed, Fiske often cites the fact that 80-90 per cent of all advertising strategies fail to succeed in bringing in an increase in sales (Fiske 1990), which has led to many people to question the usefulness of New Audience Research. First, there seems to be a great deal of backtracking and shifting over how much meaning should be assigned by the audience and how much on the text amongst its protagonists with disagreements as to how far audiences were interpreting texts through their social backgrounds with Nightingale (1996) pointing out that many later research studies backtracked into textual analysis. Morley (1990) decided to distanc e himself from Fiskes ideas of a semiotic democracy despite the latters praise of his Nationwide study. In his article printed in Curran et al (1990), he criticises the lack of power in Fiskes beliefs, stating that it had become too disseminated and lacked ideology. He also commented on the fact that reading texts is not the same as changing the text itself. Morley (ibid) himself had an argument with his contemporary James Curran, who questions the novelty of New Audience Research and therefore how much it had to add to the discourse. For instance, he cited work completed by a large number of media effects researchers from the 1940s and 1950s, who studied reception analysis whilst taking into account sociological backgrounds. For New Audience researchers, he argues: year AD starts with textual analysis (ibid p266) in the cultural/literary effects tradition and ignores what went before it. Of Fiske he argues that his ideas were old pluralism re-heated (ibid p267) that simply played into the hands of neo-liberal America, that wanted to deny any sort of hegemonic power in the media. Nightingale (1996) takes this further and comments that news and current affairs programmes and the ideology politics that surrounded them were dropped soon after the Nationwide study for more identity-orientated politics within soap operas making the research f ar more populist. The fact that the research turned the idea of power and ideology away from the media itself is something that Nightingale and many others criticise. Even Morley (1990) acknowledged that it is very well to rip ones jeans as a sign of resistance; however this is at best a micro-political move of resistance and not one that makes people think twice about buying designer jeans. Despite these valid criticisms, this essay still maintains that New Audience Research still was revolutionary as it helped a discourse that was very much removed from focusing on the audience as individuals able to make a resistance or re-interpret the media in any way. Morley (cited in Curran et al, 1990) replied to Currans argument by saying that he criticised the new research with the gift of hindsight given to him by new audience researchs work, and that none of the previous authors whose work focused on the audience would have been brought to light if it was not for new audience research raising the audience as an issue once again. In this way, a once marginalised area of research reasserted itself into the mainstream. It was, as Morley (1980) said a paradigm shift in every sense of the word. Sympathy, too, has to be given to Fiske for his pluralistic vision of semiotics. It could be argued that he was merely taking Halls original challenge to its logical conclusion that it cou ld be hypothesised that Audiences could actually hold a great deal of power. Curran (1990), Nightingale (1996), Eco (1974 cited in Nightingale 1996)) and others all agree that Fiske through his ideas on the active audience and plurality of meaning brought the idea of semiotics to a new generation of researchers, especially in America. Nightingale (1996, p 58) goes further and argues that New Audience Research was the point where sociology and semiotics meet in a globally unifying approach to the study of mass communications. Nightingale herself argues that despite the shortcomings, the new wave of Audience research was indeed paradigm shift and created a profound reorientation in cultural studies (ibid, p 60). Her reasoning for this was that studies such as Morleys Nationwide forced researchers to look beyond the passivity of audiences, beyond psychology and/or effects and root the debate within political and sociological discourse. It allowed researchers to look beyond the mass and see the inherent stratification in society (ibid, p 69). Furthermore, the emphasis on ethnography and qualitative research helped to bridge the gap between researcher and subject (ibid, p 68). In this way researchers now had to acknowledge this dimension of the audience as a major factor in audience research. In conclusion, despite new audience researchs critics saying that that it dissolves the meaning of the text, is not anything new, and individualises and pluralises audience research to a point to where meaning almost evaporates (Curran p 260), the concept behind it has still proved to be revolutionary. First, it took the discourse of audience studies away from the pessimistic and almost patronising beliefs of Marxists, Leavisites and media affects theorists that saw the audience as a single, passive mass. Instead it made them into active forces of meaning as Hall maintained. As Morley discovered in his experiment, they did not have to agree with the way mass media encoded the text, they could take various meanings from it depending on a host of background factors. They were an active audience, according to Fiske, who could resist the hegemony of media and create their own readings. It has had a lasting effect on audience research globally, whilst the discourse has moved on, the soci al, cultural and economic etc background of an audience is seen as a major component of audience studies research (Jensen et al, 1991). Active audience studies New Influence Research The evolution of media studies reviewed thus far reveals the distinctions, if not contradictions to the approaches between media effects research and studies exploring active audiences / reception studies. Kitzinger (2004:24) notes that the polarity between these two media scholarships has split media researchers into two sides, moreover with the existing geographical and cultural borders between which historically underpins media studies framework. Studies emphasising media effects and media power over audiences are more popular in the United States, whereas researchers in the Western Europe are more interested with the way audience use and meanings of media messages. At some point, this gap continues to widen as researchers focused on the difference, rather than finding a way to bridge media effects and audience studies (Morley, 1998). Nonetheless, a group of scholars have attempted to revitalise Halls encoding/decoding theory and try to (re)connect reception studies with media effects studies (for example see reception work conducted by the Glasgow Media Unit, Kitzinger, 2004; and Miller et. al., 1998). These studies revive the approach of Morleys Nationwide research and differentiate themselves from the over-emphasis of audience power in most active audience studies. This approach, also referred as the new influence research acknowledges that the media has some influence towards people and that the focus is to identify what and how audiences interact with these influences. Kitzinger (2002:276) asserts that the new influence studies has little connection with the hypodemic needle theory and that exploring into the ways audiences interpret media messages will help reveal ways in which media effects actually operates. The new influence research therefore acknowledges some media effects on audiences by theorizing way s in which audience interpret media representations and construct meanings. Although the impetus of new influence research is to bridge the gap between two major approaches of media research, most empirical work do not necessarily concern to find a link between media and behaviour in any context. In fact studies consistently fail to find a link between these two (Barker and Petley, 1996; Norris et. Al, 1999), and any research hoping to prove such link is doomed to failure (Gauntlett, 1998). On the other hand, the new influence research embraces the different ways audience may interpret what they see/hear/read in the media and acknowledges the limits of these interpretations, as well as the possibilities for shared mainstream interpretation particularly when dealing with repetitive and relatively closed text (Kitzinger, 1999; Livingstone, 1999). What this suggests is that although people can individually respond actively to the media, their predisposed collective needs, beliefs and interests may influence their response. Media reporting of health and perception of risks Seale (220:25) argues that the ways in which audience understand health issues is complex and involves a process of selecting and constructing unique composition of different health stories through media usage and experience. This process, or intertextual experience as he describes it, should not be overlooked in studies of media and health as audience are not only exposed to a single health story, but interactions of various different health issues across different media. As a result, audience understanding of a particular health issue may (or may not) overlap or influenced by their interpretation of other health stories in the media. Seale therefore believes that when analysing any forms of media